Table 2:

Risk factors for Parkinson disease

Nonmodifiable risk factors (14)– (16)Modifiable risk factors
Increased riskPossible decreased risk

  • Age (mean age 65 yr)

  • Sex (M:F = 1.5:1.0)

  • Genetics (10% of cases)

    • LRRK2 mutation (most common)

    • Glucocerebrosidase gene mutation

    • Parkin mutation (juvenile onset)

  • Industrial exposure (17)

  • Heavy metals (i.e., manganese, lead, copper) (16), (19)

  • Pesticides (i.e., rotenone, paraquat) (15), (21)

  • Obstructive sleep apnea (maybe in women) (22)

  • Smoking (may be protective) (18)

  • Caffeine (may lower risk, relative risk 0.69; does not imply causality) (20)

  • Note: F = female, M = male.