Age (mean age 65 yr) Sex (M:F = 1.5:1.0) Genetics (10% of cases) LRRK2 mutation (most common) Glucocerebrosidase gene mutation Parkin mutation (juvenile onset)
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Industrial exposure (17) Heavy metals (i.e., manganese, lead, copper) (16), (19) Pesticides (i.e., rotenone, paraquat) (15), (21) Obstructive sleep apnea (maybe in women) (22)
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Smoking (may be protective) (18) Caffeine (may lower risk, relative risk 0.69; does not imply causality) (20)
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